Elements are represented by symbols. The names and symbols of elements are given in the order of increasing atomic numbers.
Sunday, October 26, 2008
Elements.
Elements are substances which cannot be reduced to simpler materials either by physical or chemical changes. Examples are iorn, copper, silver, gold etc.
Chemical classification of matter.
Based on chemical composition of the substances, matter may beclassified as elements, compounds and mixtures
Plasma.
Plasma is the fourth state of matter containing gaseous iorn, and occure at very high temperature.
Gasses.
Gasses Have no rigidity,intrinsic shape or intrinsic volume. Gasses assume the shape and volume of the container.
Liquids.
Liquids have no rigidity but have definit volume. They have no definite shape. They take the shape of the vessel in which they are contained.
Physical Classification of Matter.
On the basis of rigidity, volume, and shape, all matter can be grouped into Solids, Liquids and Gases.
Classification of Matter.
The entire universe is made up of matter and energy. Matter may be defined as any thing which occupies space and has mass. In fact all objects in the universe are composed of matter. Some examples of matter are air, watter, mountains, planets, plants, animals and man. Since matter exists in countless forms, its study can be simplified by dividing it into different classes depending upon its properties.
Special notes on the uses of SI units-7
The degree sign to be omitted when the kelvin scale is employed. For example, 273 K
Special notes on the uses of SI units-6
Digits should be grouped in three about decimal point in order tofacilitate the reading of long numbers. Commas should not be used to space digits in numbers. For example, 12345678.12345 and not 1,23,45,678.123,45.
Special notes on the use of SI units -5
Symbols for units are the same in the plural and in the singular forms. For example, 10 kilograms is written as 10 kg and not as 10 kgs. 30 grams is written as 30 gm and not 3 gms.
Special notes on the uses of SI units.-4
According to the conventions, symbols are not to be followed by full stop. For example, km not km.
Special notes on the uses of SI units.-3
The names of units may be written in full, or by using approved symbols but no other abbreviations are allowed. For example, ampere should be written either in full or as A but not as amp.
Special notes on the uses of SI units.-2
Units and their symbols which are not named after scientist are not written in capital letters. For example, meter m, second s etc
Special notes on the uses of SI units.-1
Units named after scientists do not start with capital letters but the symbols of the units are written in capitals. Foer example, ampere A, kelvin K etc.
Principles of Inorganic Chemistry
This course provides a systematic presentation of the chemical applications of group theory with emphasis on the formal deve
lopment of the subject and its applications to the physical methods of inorganic chemical compounds. The electronic structure of molecules will be developed. Against this backdrop, the optical, vibrational, and magnetic properties of transition metal complexes are presented and their investigation by the appropriate spectroscopy is described.
lopment of the subject and its applications to the physical methods of inorganic chemical compounds. The electronic structure of molecules will be developed. Against this backdrop, the optical, vibrational, and magnetic properties of transition metal complexes are presented and their investigation by the appropriate spectroscopy is described. Saturday, October 25, 2008
Biochemistry
Biochemistry
Originally a subdivision of chemistry but now an independent science, biochemistry includes all aspects of chemistry that apply to living organisms. Thus, photochemistry is directly involved with photosynthesis and physical chemistry with osmosis... two phenomena that underlie all plant and animal life. Other important chemical mechanisms that apply directly to living organisms are catalysis, which takes place in biochemical systems by the agency of enzymes; nucleic acid and protein constitution and behaviour, which is known to control the mechanism of genetics; colloid chemistry, which deals in part with the nature of cell walls, muscles, collagen, etc; acid-base relations, involved in the pH of body fluids; and such nutritional components as amino acids, fats, carbohydrates, minerals, lipids and vitamins, all of which are essential to life. The chemical organisation and reproductive behaviour of microorganisms (bacteria and viruses) and a large part of agricultural chemistry are also included in biochemistry. Particularly active areas of biochemistry are nucleic acids, cell surfaces (membranes), enzymology, peptide hormones, molecular biology, and recombinant DNA.
Originally a subdivision of chemistry but now an independent science, biochemistry includes all aspects of chemistry that apply to living organisms. Thus, photochemistry is directly involved with photosynthesis and physical chemistry with osmosis... two phenomena that underlie all plant and animal life. Other important chemical mechanisms that apply directly to living organisms are catalysis, which takes place in biochemical systems by the agency of enzymes; nucleic acid and protein constitution and behaviour, which is known to control the mechanism of genetics; colloid chemistry, which deals in part with the nature of cell walls, muscles, collagen, etc; acid-base relations, involved in the pH of body fluids; and such nutritional components as amino acids, fats, carbohydrates, minerals, lipids and vitamins, all of which are essential to life. The chemical organisation and reproductive behaviour of microorganisms (bacteria and viruses) and a large part of agricultural chemistry are also included in biochemistry. Particularly active areas of biochemistry are nucleic acids, cell surfaces (membranes), enzymology, peptide hormones, molecular biology, and recombinant DNA.
Nuclear Chemistry
Nuclear Chemistry
The division of chemistry dealing with changes in or transformations of the atomic nucleus. It includes spontaneous and induced radioactivity, the fission or splitting of nuclei, and their fusion, or union; also the properties and behaviour of the reaction products and their separation and analysis. The reactions involving nuclei are usually accompanied by large energy changes, far greater than those of chemical reactions; that are carried out in nuclear reactors for electric power production and manufacture of radioactive isotopes for medical use, also (in research work) in cyclotrons
The division of chemistry dealing with changes in or transformations of the atomic nucleus. It includes spontaneous and induced radioactivity, the fission or splitting of nuclei, and their fusion, or union; also the properties and behaviour of the reaction products and their separation and analysis. The reactions involving nuclei are usually accompanied by large energy changes, far greater than those of chemical reactions; that are carried out in nuclear reactors for electric power production and manufacture of radioactive isotopes for medical use, also (in research work) in cyclotrons
Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry Defined: Stoichiometry is the branch of chemistry and chemical engineering that deals with the quantities of substances that enter into, and are produced by, chemical reactions. Stoichiometry provides the quantitative relationship between reactants and products in a chemical reaction. For example, when methane unites with oxygen in complete combustion, 16g of methane require 64g of oxygen. At the same time 44g of carbon dioxide and 36g of water are formed as reaction productions.
Every chemical reaction has it's characteristic proportions. The method of obtaining these from chemical formulas, equations, atomic weights and molecular weights, and determination of what and how much is used and produced in chemical processes, is the major concern of Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry Defined: Stoichiometry is the branch of chemistry and chemical engineering that deals with the quantities of substances that enter into, and are produced by, chemical reactions. Stoichiometry provides the quantitative relationship between reactants and products in a chemical reaction. For example, when methane unites with oxygen in complete combustion, 16g of methane require 64g of oxygen. At the same time 44g of carbon dioxide and 36g of water are formed as reaction productions.
Every chemical reaction has it's characteristic proportions. The method of obtaining these from chemical formulas, equations, atomic weights and molecular weights, and determination of what and how much is used and produced in chemical processes, is the major concern of Stoichiometry
Physical Chemistry
Physical Chemistry
Application of the concepts and laws of physics to chemical phenomena in order to describe in quantitative (mathematical) terms a vast amount of qualitative (observational) information.A selection of only the most important concepts of physical chemistry would include: the electron wave equation and the quantum mechanical interpretation of atomic and molecular structure, the study of the subatomic fundamental particles of matter, application of thermodynamics to heats of formation of compounds and the heats of chemical reaction, the theory of rate processes and chemical equilibria, orbital theory and chemical bonding, surface chemistry, including catalysis and finely divided particles, the principles of electrochemistry and ionization. Although physical chemistry is closely related to both inorganic and organic chemistry, it is considered a separate discipline.
Application of the concepts and laws of physics to chemical phenomena in order to describe in quantitative (mathematical) terms a vast amount of qualitative (observational) information.A selection of only the most important concepts of physical chemistry would include: the electron wave equation and the quantum mechanical interpretation of atomic and molecular structure, the study of the subatomic fundamental particles of matter, application of thermodynamics to heats of formation of compounds and the heats of chemical reaction, the theory of rate processes and chemical equilibria, orbital theory and chemical bonding, surface chemistry, including catalysis and finely divided particles, the principles of electrochemistry and ionization. Although physical chemistry is closely related to both inorganic and organic chemistry, it is considered a separate discipline.
Analytical Chemistry
Analytical Chemistry
Analytical Chemistry is the subdivision of chemistry concerned with identification of materials (qualitative analysis) and with determination of the percentage composition of mixtures or the constituents of a pure compound (quantitative analysis). The gravimetric and volumetric (or "wet") methods (precipitation, titration and solvent extraction) are still used for routine work and new titration methods have been introduced e.g. cryoscopic, pressure-metric (for reactions the produce a gaseous product), redox methods, and use of a F-sensitive electrode etc. However, faster and more accurate techniques (collectively called instrumental) have been developed in the last few decades. Among these are infrared, ultraviolet, and x-ray spectroscopy where the presence and amount of a metallic element is indicated by lines in it's emission or absorption spectrum... colorimetry by which the percentage of a substance in soluble is determined by the intensity of it's colour... chromatography of various types by which the components of a liquid or gaseous mixture are determined by passing it through a column of porous material or on thin layers of finely divided solids... separation of mixtures in ion exchange columns and radioactive tracer analysis. Optical and electron microscopy, mass spectrometry, microanalysis, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and Nuclear Quadrupole Resonance (NQR) spectroscopy all fall within the area of analytical chemistry. New and highly sophisticated techniques have been introduced in recent years, in many cases replacing traditional methods
Analytical Chemistry is the subdivision of chemistry concerned with identification of materials (qualitative analysis) and with determination of the percentage composition of mixtures or the constituents of a pure compound (quantitative analysis). The gravimetric and volumetric (or "wet") methods (precipitation, titration and solvent extraction) are still used for routine work and new titration methods have been introduced e.g. cryoscopic, pressure-metric (for reactions the produce a gaseous product), redox methods, and use of a F-sensitive electrode etc. However, faster and more accurate techniques (collectively called instrumental) have been developed in the last few decades. Among these are infrared, ultraviolet, and x-ray spectroscopy where the presence and amount of a metallic element is indicated by lines in it's emission or absorption spectrum... colorimetry by which the percentage of a substance in soluble is determined by the intensity of it's colour... chromatography of various types by which the components of a liquid or gaseous mixture are determined by passing it through a column of porous material or on thin layers of finely divided solids... separation of mixtures in ion exchange columns and radioactive tracer analysis. Optical and electron microscopy, mass spectrometry, microanalysis, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and Nuclear Quadrupole Resonance (NQR) spectroscopy all fall within the area of analytical chemistry. New and highly sophisticated techniques have been introduced in recent years, in many cases replacing traditional methods
Organic Chemistry
Organic Chemistry
A major branch of chemistry which embraces all compounds of carbon except such binary compounds as the carbon oxides, the carbides, carbon disulfide, etc.; such ternary compounds as the metallic cyanides, metallic carbonyls, phosgene (COCl2), carbonyl sulfide (COS), etc.; and the metallic carbonates, such as calcium carbonate and sodium carbonate. The total number of organic compounds is indeterminate, but some 6,000,000 have been identified and named
Important areas of organic chemistry include polymerization, hydrogenation, isomerization, fermentation, photochemistry, and stereochemistry. There is no sharp dividing line between organic and inorganic chemistry, for the two often tend to overlap.
A major branch of chemistry which embraces all compounds of carbon except such binary compounds as the carbon oxides, the carbides, carbon disulfide, etc.; such ternary compounds as the metallic cyanides, metallic carbonyls, phosgene (COCl2), carbonyl sulfide (COS), etc.; and the metallic carbonates, such as calcium carbonate and sodium carbonate. The total number of organic compounds is indeterminate, but some 6,000,000 have been identified and named
Important areas of organic chemistry include polymerization, hydrogenation, isomerization, fermentation, photochemistry, and stereochemistry. There is no sharp dividing line between organic and inorganic chemistry, for the two often tend to overlap.
SYSTEM INTERNATIONAL
There are many different system of units. In order to brong about international uni formity, in expressing physical quqntities in scientific measurements, a new system of units has been introduced in recent years. It is called the
International system of units or System international units (SI). SI units are metric units which are rational and coherent.
International system of units or System international units (SI). SI units are metric units which are rational and coherent.
Inorganic Chemistry
Inorganic Chemistry
A major branch of chemistry is generally considered to embrace all substances except hydrocarbons and their derivatives, or all substances that are not compounds of carbon disulfide. It covers a broad range of subjects, among which are atomic structure, crystallography, chemical bonding, coordination compounds, acid-base reactions, ceramics, and the various subdivisions of electrochemistry (electrolysis, battery science, corrosion, semiconduction, etc.). It is important to state that inorganic and organic chemistry often overlap. For example, chemical bonding applies to both disciplines, electrochemistry and acid-base reactions have their organic counterparts, catalysts and coordination compounds may be either organic or inorganic.
Regarding the importance of inorganic chemistry, R.T. Sanderson has written: "All chemistry is the science of atoms, involving an understanding of why they possess certain characteristic qualities and why these qualities dictate the behavior of atoms when they come together. All properties of material substances are the inevitable result of the kind of atoms and the manner in which they are attached and assembled. All chemical change involves a rearrangement of atoms. Inorganic chemistry (is) the only discipline within the chemistry that examines specifically the differences among all the different kinds of atoms".
A major branch of chemistry is generally considered to embrace all substances except hydrocarbons and their derivatives, or all substances that are not compounds of carbon disulfide. It covers a broad range of subjects, among which are atomic structure, crystallography, chemical bonding, coordination compounds, acid-base reactions, ceramics, and the various subdivisions of electrochemistry (electrolysis, battery science, corrosion, semiconduction, etc.). It is important to state that inorganic and organic chemistry often overlap. For example, chemical bonding applies to both disciplines, electrochemistry and acid-base reactions have their organic counterparts, catalysts and coordination compounds may be either organic or inorganic.
Regarding the importance of inorganic chemistry, R.T. Sanderson has written: "All chemistry is the science of atoms, involving an understanding of why they possess certain characteristic qualities and why these qualities dictate the behavior of atoms when they come together. All properties of material substances are the inevitable result of the kind of atoms and the manner in which they are attached and assembled. All chemical change involves a rearrangement of atoms. Inorganic chemistry (is) the only discipline within the chemistry that examines specifically the differences among all the different kinds of atoms".
CHEMISTRY
What is Chemistry?
Chemistry is a basic science whose central concerns are -
the structure and behaviour of atoms (elements)
the composition and properties of compounds
the reactions between substances with their accompanying energy exchange
the laws that unite these phenomena into a comprehensive system.
Chemistry is not an isolated discipline, for it merges into physics and biology. The origin of the term is obscure. Chemistry evolved from the medieval practice of alchemy. It's bases were laid by such men as Boyle, Lavoisier, Priestly, Berzelius, Avogadro, Dalton and Pasteur.
Chemistry is a basic science whose central concerns are -
the structure and behaviour of atoms (elements)
the composition and properties of compounds
the reactions between substances with their accompanying energy exchange
the laws that unite these phenomena into a comprehensive system.
Chemistry is not an isolated discipline, for it merges into physics and biology. The origin of the term is obscure. Chemistry evolved from the medieval practice of alchemy. It's bases were laid by such men as Boyle, Lavoisier, Priestly, Berzelius, Avogadro, Dalton and Pasteur.
Tuesday, October 21, 2008
INTRODECTION
Science is the systematised knowledge gained by human observations, experience and experimentation. Tese observation may be of qualitative or quantitative nature. The quantitative observation generally involve measurment of one or more physical quantities such as length, volume, mass, density etc..
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